Wednesday, January 29, 2020

Sex Difference in Evolutionary Psychology Essay Example for Free

Sex Difference in Evolutionary Psychology Essay Disclosing human behaviour has initiated study and research from a capacious range of disciplines, effectuating varied perspectives on human behaviour. Essentialist or social constructionist perspective has been considered by psychologists to examine the origin of sex differences (Anselmi Law, 1998). Essentialism articulates that sex differences commence from inducements that are intrinsic in human beings, and present itself as an alternative meta-theory to conventional sociology. The discrepancy in sex differences across social contexts is considered by social constructionist view-point, understood by the interpretation of the sexes amidst specific contexts. Highly contrasting theories emanate when apprehending factors responsible for human sex-linked behaviour, thus making it strenuous to critic the factors that essentially manipulate and manage behaviour (Jureidini Poole 2000). Hence, the current essay provides a cogent explanatory framework for understanding the causation of sex differences, anchored primarily from evolutionary psychology, with criticisms reported against its concepts on sex differences. Sexuality is sexual behaviour, epitomized as the inherent behavioural predispositions, augmenting the probability of passing genes into future progeny (Buss, 1989). Human mate selection has generated a substantial degree of research, instilling a pronounce degree of sexual differentiation between the characteristics that men and women desire in potential mates (Buss, 1989; Buss Barnes, 1986). The division of labour (Durkheim, 1964) observed men inclined to be stereotyped and envisaged as bread winners, with the role of child carers and nurturers stereotyped as women, patriarchy acknowledged as the custom with aggressive nature expected from men, and nurturing and passive nature expected from women (Jureidini Poole, 2001). Males endeavoured to reproduce and desired the need to be paternal, and have evolved high risk high stakes game strategy to attract mates (Miller, 2000). Women are impulsively attracted to males with the ability to protect and provide for her and her children (Zajdow, 2002). Buss’s (Buss et al., 1990) remarkable cross- cultural study found that males are inclined to yield mates with physical attractiveness and youth, while women desire mates with more financial power. Evolutionary psychologists, however, have dedicated little attention to the synergy between the social and cultural environment quality. Social structural perspectives theorize the motive of mate selection mirror peoples effort to make the most of their utilities with respect to mating choices. Marriage is typified as functioning between utility-amplifying women and men to reach stability with economic exchanges (Becker, 1976), implying that differences in mate selection are accountable due to lucid economic arrangements than from the perspective of inherited predispositions (Tattersall, 1998). Eagly and Wood (1999), criticizing the evolutionary perspective, concluded that mate preferences are shaped by the society in which we live today, and conflicting assignment of role portrayed due to sexual division of labor. Potential accounts for these unlike views include the circumstance of each psychologist. Buss, a male evolutionary psychologist, grew up with an influential background in beliefs that behaviour is a result of how one adapts to their environment. Eagly and Wood elucidate the results contradictorily possibly because they are both females who credit strongly in equality for all, and therefore observe the differences in preferences as a consequence of the principles of today’s society; a key example being the preferred age of females at marriage, affected by a more career-oriented female than in earlier times. The concept that sexuality is learned is notably provided by sociologists. Studies amid animal primates exhibit abnormal sexual behaviour upon segregation of young apes from monitoring sexual behaviour. Subsequently, the affected ape will acquire sexual behaviour to relatively normal level upon remedial socialisation (the ability to inspect sexuality of other) (Jureidini Poole 2001). In cultures such as the ‘Mehinaku’ of Brazil, the men engage in limited sexual activity due to the conception of sexual activity as disgusting (Gregor, 1985). Sociologists have discovered that attractive features vary across cultures (Jureidini Poole 2002). Deviations from the Darwinian Theory have been observed in modern western culture, with the contemporary media depicting thin and lean body types of women body structures as appealing (Vida 1996). Gender differences in aggression are eminently variable. From an evolutionary  viewpoint, aggression can be suitable in a number of situations, for animals (Archer, 1988), and human beings (Buss Shackelford, 1997). The utility of aggression was to assign individuals over their accessible home range so as to secure the most advantageous utilization of a region and its nutrients (Lorenz, 1966). Such a functional perspective on aggression has been abdicated, with modern consensus that neither humans nor other animals are furnished with the aggressive instinct, and contemplated to be context-dependent (Buss Shackelford, 1997). With variations in society, the occurrence of aggression between males and females may alter. Increased use of direct and physical means of aggression among girls, have shown to occur in the last decade (Huesmann et al. 1998). One probable account is, perplexingly, the progress of the dignity of women in society. Human memory evolved because it enhanced fitness in specific environments of evolutionary adaptedness (Tooby Cosmides, 1992), receptive to subject relevant to evolutionary ï ¬ tness. Words reckoned for survival relevance in scenarios were subsequently retained at notably higher rates than words rated for relevance in a range of control scenario conditions (Nairne Pandeirada, 2008). Sex differences in spatial abilities may possibly have an evolutionary basis, with suggested that the division of labor consistently detected in hunter-gatherer societies may have led to remarkable foraging-related cognitive specializations of the sexes (Sherry et al, 1992; Silverman Eals, 1992). Men typically surpass women on tasks considered to be related to hunting skills (e.g., navigation), while women typically show a lead on tasks requiring memory for objects accumulated in fixed locales (Voyer et al., 2007). Males are inclined to excel in tests of mathematical reasoning than females (Kimura, 19 99). Although mathematical abilities may not have primary selective demands in the evolutionary past, that ability may be a by-product of spatial ability (Geary, 1996). The current essay explained certain concepts of sex differences chiefly from the perception of evolutionary psychology. Some limitations exposed in some arguments, for example the inference on aggressive behaviour in modern times cannot be satisfactory annotated by social constructionist views, while evolutionary views are more credible. As social beings, our surroundings and  cultures will play a crucial role when flourishing our identity, whether this affects us biologically when evolving. Hence it is vital to incur comprehensions from many perspectives and deem the supremacy of evolution, the quagmire of social constructions and the impact of environment when determining sex differences in human beings.

Tuesday, January 21, 2020

Racial Barriers in Grace Paleys Short Story Samuel Essay -- Grace Pal

Racial Barriers in Grace Paley's Short Story Samuel It is hard to distinguish the difference between which race is more important. One might ask themselves if white is superior over colored skin. There have been numerous struggles and much success in the fight towards equality between the races. Although many large steps have been made, there are still existing racial barriers. One particular struggle is whether or not people of different races should interact with each other. Should Caucasian adults interact with young children of color? A question that becomes especially critical when children are putting themselves in potentially dangerous situations. This moral debate is portrayed in Grace Paley's short story, "Samuel." The same conflict haunts both men and women, but is portrayed as two completely different groups. The narrator is selective omniscient and allows the men's and women's feelings to be expressed when presented with the same racial issue such as portrayed in "Samuel." This also allows the reader to observe how each sex responds to the issue. Grace Paley writes, "The men and women in the cars on either side watch the young boys playing on the platform. They do not like them to jiggle or jump but don't want to interfere" (191). This shows that both men and women did not like what the boys were doing outside on the platform, and each deals with it in very different ways. The men in the subway cars make no effort to break through the barriers. They take no initiative to interact and stop the boys from the risky situation the put themselves in. The men seem to excuse themselves and the boys' actions by reminiscing their boyhood and all the brave adventures they had in their lives. Instead of ... ... He becomes the symbol of hope that the Caucasian adults are willing to break down the barriers separating them from the African American children. When the other men just stood there daydreaming, this "citizenly" (192) man struck the first blow that could break down the racial wall. But because of this single action, one of the boys (Samuel) falls off the platform and dies. I believe that if we stand together to fight the battles and the struggles of our society today it would only make us stronger. One individual cannot make a difference. The one blow of the "citizenly" (192) man is nothing, but many blows that are consistent and strong will break down the wall of inequality. Bibliography: Paley, Grace. "Samuel." Literature for Composition: Essay, Fiction, Poetry, and Drama. 5th ed. Ed. Sylvan Barnet. New York: Longman, 2001. 190-192

Monday, January 13, 2020

Hemmingway

American Novel 8/04/2013 Q) Hemmingway’s depiction of the condition of man in a society that has been upset by the violence of war, in light of â€Å"The Sun also Rises† and â€Å"A Farewell to Arms†. No American writer is more associated with writing about war in the early 20th century than Ernest Hemingway. He experienced it first hand, wrote dispatches from innumerable frontlines, and used war as a backdrop for many of his most memorable works. Commenting on these experience years later in  Men at War,  Hemingway wrote: â€Å"When you go to war as a boy you have a great illusion of immortality.Other people get killed; not you. . . . Then when you are badly wounded the first time you lose that illusion and you know it can happen to you. After being severely wounded two weeks before my nineteenth birthday I had a bad time until I figured out that nothing could happen to me that had not happened to all men before me. Whatever I had to do men had always done. If they had done it then I could do it too and the best thing was not to worry about it. Many persons whose outward lives do not in the least resemble that of a typical ‘Hemingway’s character’ are still conscious of the dislocation due to war, and of which he has made himself the outstanding fictional spokesmen of our time. Hemingway’s characters are soldiers, sportsman, Prize fighter and his world of fiction swarm with ferrets, drunkards and prostitutes. He is greatly pre-occupied with death and violence. ‘A Farewell to Arms’ shows Hemingway’s ability to create life like character, both male and female, in such a way as to make us feel that we have actually met them.The First World War plays an important role in the novels of Ernest Hemingway. He has depicted all real war experience in his novel. The war led up to a deep distrust of all established institutions and values religions, ideals, society, patriotisms etc. Only concrete expe riences were valued. Thus, Hemingway emphasized the sense and the experience based on them. The Sun also Rises is one of his such novels. It is a story of a few American expatriates who were living in Paris after the War. There were all wounded either physically or psychologically by the war. I got hurt in the war,† I said. â€Å"Oh, that dirty war. † We would probably have gone on and discussed the war and agreed that it was in reality a calamity for civilization, and perhaps would have been better avoided. I was bored enough. Just then from the other room someone called: â€Å"Barnes! I say Barnes! Jacob Barnes! † (3. 9)| The banal discussion of the war that Jake and Georgette narrowly escape is one that’s unsatisfactory and not comprehensive. We get the feeling that there’s a lot more to be said about the war, but nobody knows how to communicate it yet. â€Å"My dear, I am sure Mr.Barnes has seen a lot. Don’t think I don’t think so , sir. I have seen a lot, too. †Ã‚   â€Å"Of course you have, my dear,† Brett said. â€Å"I was only ragging. † â€Å"I have been in seven wars and four revolutions,† the count said. â€Å"Soldiering? † Brett asked. â€Å"Sometimes, my dear. And I have got arrow wounds. Have you ever seen arrow wounds? † (7. 18)| The count’s definition of â€Å"seen a lot† is associated with war – as though war is the only real experience a man can have. The old pre-war values cannot give them the direction that they are looking for and in this lost world they are all lost souls.They drink heavily to quieten their inner distressed voices. Jake Barnes is a casualty of the First World War. He has been made impotent due to his injury and thus is now ‘half the man than he was before. ’ His physical impairment has made it impossible for him to consummate his love and thus this becomes the tragedy of his love for Brett Ashley. Alt hough there is no mention of it in the novel directly, it has been implied in certain scenes. As Brett is not willing to settle for less, Jake is drowned in the ocean of unrequited love.Thus, Jake then becomes a tragic hero, one of the most praised heroes of Hemingway’s books. We see that the war has taken away his masculinity from him leaving him incomplete for life. As Jake’s war doctor remarks on his loss, â€Å"He has given much more than his life. † As the title of the novel makes clear,  A Farewell to Arms  concerns itself primarily with war, namely the process by which Frederic Henry removes himself from it and leaves it behind. The few characters in the novel who actually support the effort—Ettore Moretti and Gino—come across as a dull raggart and a naive youth, respectively. The majority of the characters remain ambivalent about the war, resentful of the terrible destruction it causes, doubtful of the glory it supposedly brings. The no vel offers masterful descriptions of the conflicts senseless brutality and violent chaos. The scene of the Italian army’s retreat remains one of the most profound evocations of War in American Literature. As the neat columns of men begin to crumble so does the soldier’s nerves, minds, and capacity for rational thought and moral judgement.Henry’s shooting of the engineer for refusing to help free the car from the mud shocks the reader for two reasons, first, the violent outburst seems at odds with Henry’s detached character, and secondly, the incident occurs in a setting that robs it of its moral import, the complicity of Henry’s fellow soldiers legitimizes the killing. The murder of the engineer seems justifiable because it is an inevitable by-product of the spiralling violence and disorder of the War.I had seen nothing sacred, and the things that were glorious had no glory and the sacrifices were like the stockyards at Chicago if nothing was done with the meat except to bury it. There were many words that you could not stand to hear and finally only the names of places had dignity. Certain numbers were the same way and certain dates and these with the names of the places were all you could say and have them mean anything. Abstract words such as glory, honour, courage, or hallow were obscene beside the concrete names of villages, the numbers of roads, the names of rivers, the numbers of regiments and the dates.To Henry, such abstractions as honour, glory, and sacrifice do little to explain or assuage the unbelievable destruction that he sees around him. What matters, he decides, are the names of villages and soldiers, the concrete facts of decimated walls and dead bodies. He believes that in order to discuss the war honestly, one must dismiss artificial concepts and deal with terms grounded in the reality of the war. He tarnishes the romanticized ideal of the military hero by equating the â€Å"sacrifices† of human liv es in war with the slaughter of livestock.He further compares romantic riffs about honor and glory to burying meat in the ground. Nothing can be sustained or nurtured by such pointlessness. Hemingway believed that in this corrupt world it is no longer possible to have a decent, self-respecting and dignified life. It is the end of love, end of human dignity, end of personal relationships and a realisation that man is all alone in the world and he has to fend for himself. It is the realisation that the ultimate reality is nothing but nada, a Spanish word which means ‘nothingness’. â€Å"Nada†, someone said. â€Å"It’s nothing.Drink up. Lift the bottle. † (The Sun Also Rises, chapter15) The Sun Also Rises portrays a few American and British young men whose experiences of the war are qualitatively not different from those of Nick Adams and Jake Barnes and they are lost in a world which they do not understand. Their meaningless wanderings in Paris and la ter in Pamplona are the equivalents of their confused minds which have failed to find any guiding principles in life. Bull-fighting for them becomes a symbol of life in which the matador demonstrates how a man facing death can retain dignity.As a matter of fact it is in the face of danger and confrontation with death that they show courage, so that they can lead a life in which they can respect themselves. There is a vague realisation on the part of these expatriates that they cannot implement the matador’s code in their lives because of the wounds inflicted by the war will take quite some time to heal. In A Farewell to Arms Henry realizes that his idealism which had guided him into the front is meaningless in the face of total destruction symbolized by the war.Whether he performs his duties or not, it does not make any material difference to the unit to which he belongs. The endless round of drinking and brothels is equally futile because he cannot find any object to which h e could align himself and seek some sort of satisfaction that would give some meaning to his life. His love affair with Catherine Barkley is a temporary relief from the inner disquiet and finally with the death of Catherine he is no better off than the dog nosing in the dust bin for something to eat but where there is nothing for him to find.His own wound had also but killed him. This feeling of nada then led to â€Å"the lost generation†. The term lost generation is generally applied to those who had actively participated in the First World War and as a consequence of this realised that life was meaningless. As a result of the domination of machine over man, man had felt that they were extremely helpless. This disillusionment could have taken either the shape of nihilism or a search for enduring values and absolutes. In the mechanised war there was no room whatsoever for the assertion of manhood or courage and bravery.In a famous passage in A Farewell to Arms Hemingway bring s out this disillusionment. In the rain, the words like honour, glory, patriotism seemed obscene to him and what was real were the names of the regiments, streets and towns. The Sun also Rises and A Farewell to Arms celebrate the conditions that led to this disillusionment and how man sought desperately to clutch at straws in this meaningless and valueless world. There is no sentiment whatsoever about the retreat ion A Farewell to Arms or the adventures of Brett Ashley.They are delineated with the realism of a scientist but with the tenderness of an artist. There is a feeling of boredom and disgust with the half-truths and sentiments of the earlier generations. Hemingway has, along with Remarque, revealed the grotesque and the animal nature in man. Worship of instinct instead of rationality became the order of the day. The world that Hemingway has portrayed is unrecognizably part of the modern world. The violence of war is still with us. And added to it is the anxiety and fear of th e cold war that seems to have become part and parcel of the Twentieth Century life.His preoccupation with violence, decay and death may be neurotic but are still part of the twentieth century temper. The lack of morality is with us to stay. There are no religious values that can provide balm to the troubled mind. As Jake Barnes states in The Sun also Rising, â€Å"I’m a rotten Catholic. † In the words of Philip Young, â€Å"It is a hell of a world, and we should protest it. But on the other hand we should be hard-pressed to prove that it is not the one we inhabit†¦ While other writers were watching the side acts, Hemingway’s eyes were from the start focused on the main show. The devout ask for peace in our time but ironically there is no peace in our time. This is the vision that Hemingway presents in his works and it is difficult to refute its authenticity so long as our world is going to be haunted by the fear of a thermo-nuclear war. As Hemingway wrote in A Farewell to arms, â€Å"If people bring so much courage to this world the world has to kill them to break them, so of course it kills them. The world breaks everyone and afterward many are strong at the broken places.But those that will not break it kills. It kills the very good and the very gentle and the very brave impartially. If you are none of these you can be sure that it’ll kill you too but there will be no special hurry. † Work Cited: http://onviolence. com/? e=313 http://www. hrmars. com/admin/pics/1043. pdf http://www. amazon. com/Hemingway-War-Ernest/dp/0743243293 http://en. wikipedia. org/wiki/Ernest_Hemingway http://www. archives. gov/publications/prologue/2006/spring/hemingway. html Book: Hemingway on War

Sunday, January 5, 2020

Natural Selection And Human Evolution - 1198 Words

Biological Anthropology Biological anthropology, also known as physical anthropology, is the study of human evolution defined by Anthropology Professor Dr. Craig Palmer at the University of Missouri. Evolution is the changed caused by natural selection. The effect of the inheritable elements on their own frequency in succeeding generations. (Inheritable elements replaced the words generations). The variation within species and reproductive success are the basis of natural selection. Natural selection was developed by nineteenth-century British naturalists Charles Robert Darwin (1809–1882) and Alfred Russel Wallace (1823–1913). Both Darwin and argued that certain individuals in a species maybe born with particular characteristics or traits that enable them to survive better. Modern scientists believe that new species emerge when small populations become isolated from the parent group and encounter new selective pressures that may favor different characteristics. Natural selection is currently viewed as one of four major forces in the evolution of species. Natural selection enabled Darwin to explain the mechanisms of biological evolution, and it remains a powerful explanation for the development of living species of plants and animals. Examples of natural selection are Hominds and Australopithecus. Hominds are the family of primates that includes the direct ancestors of humans, share certain subtle features in their teeth, jaws, and brain. Australopithecus are an extinctShow MoreRelatedNatural Selection Theories Of Human Evolution1710 Words   |  7 PagesIntroduction Evolution refers to the process where living things’ behavioural and physical characteristics change over a particularly long period. As a theory first formulated by Charles Darwin in 1859, he explains the process of change that organisms go through in order to survive and better adapt to the areas they live in. Charles Darwin s theory has been widely accepted now, but it hasn t steered away from controversy particularly with regards to religion and the opposing perspective it putsRead MoreHow Organisms Evolved From a Common Ancestors1101 Words   |  5 Pagesof evolution. This theory states, â€Å"that all living organisms have evolved from a common ancestor through natural selection acting on hereditary variation† (Reece, 2011). Many people today, know humans have evolved from a common ancestor; but they do not recognize the importance of it. Everyone should be educated about how organisms evolved because humans have evolved throughout many centuries. Charles Darwin had many theories that incorporated the main principle of biology, natural selection andRead MoreEssay about Evolution1502 Words   |  7 Pagesevolutionary process: natural selection. Natural selection gives insight in to why organisms are the way that they are. Adaptations are phenotypic variants that result in the highest fitness among a specified set of variants in a given environment. In reference to humans, there are many traits that have been selected and adapted for throughout their evolutionary history giving them the characteristics that they have today. In this paper I will discuss some parts of the human body, which have beenRead MoreEvolution Is The Biological Ideal For The History Of Life On Earth814 Words   |  4 PagesHonors Biology Kohli December 14th, 2014 Evolution Evolution is the biological ideal for the history of life on Earth. (Evolution fact and theory). It is the process by which an organism becomes more refined over time and in response to its environment. Evolution is about how we evolved; how Neanderthals and cave men evolved into Homo sapiens much like what we are today. 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Natural selection occurs when some members of a population are better fit for survival and reproduction than the others in that population (Phelan 284-85, 2011). The environment in which organisms live plays a part in natural selection as well. Depending on the conditions of the environment, the organisms may pass down selected traits to their offspring. These selected traits will allow for the next generation to better adapt and survive longerRead MoreAre Humans Still Evolving?1556 Words   |  7 PagesAbstract evolution has occurred in humans for millions of years; however, in a modern society many scientists and evolutionists are now debating whether or not it is still occurring, and if it follows the same rules. With all of the new technology humans have cre ated, some experts believe that humans have essentially conquered nature, and no further evolutionary changes will occur. Still, others hold opposing views; some experts believe that evolution is still occurring, but modern societal advancementsRead MoreEvolution Of Natural Selection Evolution1005 Words   |  5 PagesNatural Selection-Evolution Natural selection is the evolutionary process through which factors in the environment exert pressure, favoring some individuals over others to produce the next generation. Charles Darwin (1809-1882) formulated this theory that has stood the test of time. Natural selection is important to anthropology for understanding how species change. Anthropologists emphasize the complexity of evolution and how natural selection is much more than â€Å"survival of the fittest.† CharlesRead MoreDarwin s Theory Of Evolution1115 Words   |  5 Pagesbelieve is the forth coming of evolution or what they deem to be the reasoning behind its development. 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